He explains his position farther, by professing to follow Butler in the

doctrine that, through the mere contemplation of our human faculties
and springs of action, we can discern certain relations which must
exist among them by the necessity of man"s moral being
He explains his position farther, by professing to follow Butler in the
doctrine that, through the mere contemplation of our human faculties
and springs of action, we can discern certain relations which must
exist among them by the necessity of man"s moral being. Butler
maintains that, by merely comparing appetite with conscience as springs
of action, we see conscience is superior and ought to rule; and Whewell
conceives this to be self-evident, and expresses it by stating that
_the Lower parts of our nature are to be governed by the Higher_. Men
being considered as social beings, capable of mutual understanding
through speech, it is self-evident that their rule must include
veracity. In like manner, it is self-evident from the same
consideration of social relationship, that each man should abstain from
violence and anger towards others, that is, _love his fellow men_.

Let American liberty be an intelligent liberty, and therefore a

self-sustaining liberty
Let American liberty be an intelligent liberty, and therefore a
self-sustaining liberty. Freedom, more or less complete, has been found
in two conditions of life. Man, in a rude state, where his condition
seemed to be normal, rather than the result of a process of mental and
moral degeneracy, has often possessed a large share of independence; but
this should by no means be confounded with what in America is called
liberty. The independence of the savage, or nomad, is manifested in the
absence of law; but the liberty of an American citizen is the power to
do whatever may be beneficial to himself, and not injurious to his
neighbor nor to the state. The first leaves self-protection and
self-regulation to the individual, while the latter restrains the
aggressive tendencies of all for the security of each. The first is
natural equality without law; the second is natural equality before the
law. With the first, might makes right; with the latter, right makes
might. With the first, the power of the law, or of the will of an
individual or clan, is in the rigor and success of execution; with the
latter, the power of the law is in the justice of its demand. We, as a
people, have passed the savage and nomadic state, and can return to it
only after a long and melancholy process of decay and change, out of
which ultimately might come a new and savage race of men. This, then, is
not our immediate, even if it be a possible danger. But we are to guard
against intellectual, political, and moral degeneracy. We are, through
family, religious, and public education, to take security of the
childhood and youth of the land for the preservation of the institutions
we have, and for the growth, greatness, and justice, of the republic.
Liberty in America, if you will admit the distinction, is a growth and
not a creation. The institutions of liberty in America have the same
character. By many centuries of trial, struggle, and contest, through
many years of experience, sometimes joyous, and sometimes sad, the fact
and the institutions of liberty in America have been evolved. It has not
been a work of destruction and creation, but a process of change and
progress. And so it must ever be. Reformation does not often follow
destruction; and they who seek to destroy the institutions of a country
are not its friends in fact, however they may be in purpose. Ignorance
can destroy, but intelligence is required to reform or build up. Let
the prejudice against learning, not common now, but possibly existing in
some minds, be forever banished. Learning is the friend of liberty. Of
this America has had evidence in her own history, and in her observation
of the experience of others. The literary institutions and the
cultivated men of America, like Milton and Hampden in England, preferred

Then there came and passed some of the world"s greatest

navigators
Then there came and passed some of the world"s greatest
navigators. Torres wandering from far Peru, to unknowingly
discover the strait which bears his name; Dampier, the
buccancer-adventurer, and, in 1768, the cultured, esthetic
Bougainville, who was enraptured by the beauty of the deep
forest-fringed fjords of the northeastern coast. Cook, greatest
of all geographers, mapped the principal islands and shoals of
the intricate Torres Strait in 1770; and a few years later came
Captain Bligh, the resourceful leader of his faithful few,
crouching in their frail sail boat that had survived many a
tempest; since the mutineers of the Bounty had cast them adrift
in the mid-Pacific. In the early years of the nineteenth
century the scientifically directed Astrolabe arrived, under
the command of Dumont D"Urville, and, later, Captain Owen
Stanley in the Rattlesnake, with Huxley as his zoologist, Then,
in 1858, came Alfred Russel Wallace, the codiscoverer of
Darwinism, who, by the way, is said to have been the first
Englishman who ever actually resided in New Guinea.

The inherent difficulty in the experiment of special and appropriate

co-education is the difficulty of adjusting, in the same institution,
the methods of instruction to the physiological needs of each sex; to
the persistent type of one, and the periodical type of the other; to
the demand for a margin in metamorphosis of tissue, beyond what study
causes, for general growth in one sex, and to a larger margin in the
other sex, that shall permit not only general growth, but also the
construction of the reproductive apparatus
The inherent difficulty in the experiment of special and appropriate
co-education is the difficulty of adjusting, in the same institution,
the methods of instruction to the physiological needs of each sex; to
the persistent type of one, and the periodical type of the other; to
the demand for a margin in metamorphosis of tissue, beyond what study
causes, for general growth in one sex, and to a larger margin in the
other sex, that shall permit not only general growth, but also the
construction of the reproductive apparatus. This difficulty can only
be removed by patient and intelligent effort. The first step in the
direction of removing it is to see plainly what errors or dangers lie
in the way. These, or some of them, we have endeavored to point out.
'Nothing is so conducive to a right appreciation of the truth as a
right appreciation of the error by which it is surrounded.'[32] When
we have acquired a belief of the facts concerning the identical
education, the identical co-education, the appropriate education, and
the appropriate co-education of the sexes, we shall be in a condition
to draw just conclusions from them.

Elementary Education: To what extent should elementary

education be supported by local taxation, and to what extent by
state taxation? What should be the determining factors in the
distribution of support? Secondary Education: What should be
the primary and what the secondary purpose of high school
education? To what extent should courses of study in the high
school be determined by the requirements for admission to
college, and to what extent by the demands of industrial and
civic life? University Education: Should universities and
colleges supported by public funds be controlled by independent
and autonomous powers, or should they be controlled directly by
central state authority? Education of Women: To what extent is
coeducation desirable in elementary schools, high schools,
colleges and universities? Exchange of Professors and Students
between Countries: To what extent is an exchange of students
and professors between American republics desirable? What is
the most effective basis for a system of exchange? What plans
should be adopted in order to secure mutual recognition of
technical and professional degrees by American Republics?
Engineering Education: To what extent may college courses in
engineering be profitably supplemented by practical work in the
shop? To what extent may laboratory work in engineering be
replaced through cooperation with industrial plants? Medical
Education: What preparation should be required for admission to
medical schools? What should he the minimum requirements for
graduation? What portion of the faculty of a medical school
should be required to give all their time to teaching and
investigation? What instruction may best be given by physicians
engaged in medical practice? Agricultural Education: What
preparation should be required for admission to state and
national colleges of agriculture? To what extent should the
courses of study in the agricultural college be theoretical and
general, and to what extent practical and specific? To what
extent should the curriculum of any such college be determined
by local conditions? Industrial Education: What should be the
place of industrial education in the school system of the
American republics? Should it be supported by public taxation?
Should it be considered as a function of the public school
system? Should it be given in a separate system under separate
control? How and to what extent may industrial schools
cooperate with employers of labor, Commercial Education: How
can a nation prepare in the most effective manner its young men
for a business career that is to be pursued at home or in a
foreign country
Elementary Education: To what extent should elementary
education be supported by local taxation, and to what extent by
state taxation? What should be the determining factors in the
distribution of support? Secondary Education: What should be
the primary and what the secondary purpose of high school
education? To what extent should courses of study in the high
school be determined by the requirements for admission to
college, and to what extent by the demands of industrial and
civic life? University Education: Should universities and
colleges supported by public funds be controlled by independent
and autonomous powers, or should they be controlled directly by
central state authority? Education of Women: To what extent is
coeducation desirable in elementary schools, high schools,
colleges and universities? Exchange of Professors and Students
between Countries: To what extent is an exchange of students
and professors between American republics desirable? What is
the most effective basis for a system of exchange? What plans
should be adopted in order to secure mutual recognition of
technical and professional degrees by American Republics?
Engineering Education: To what extent may college courses in
engineering be profitably supplemented by practical work in the
shop? To what extent may laboratory work in engineering be
replaced through cooperation with industrial plants? Medical
Education: What preparation should be required for admission to
medical schools? What should he the minimum requirements for
graduation? What portion of the faculty of a medical school
should be required to give all their time to teaching and
investigation? What instruction may best be given by physicians
engaged in medical practice? Agricultural Education: What
preparation should be required for admission to state and
national colleges of agriculture? To what extent should the
courses of study in the agricultural college be theoretical and
general, and to what extent practical and specific? To what
extent should the curriculum of any such college be determined
by local conditions? Industrial Education: What should be the
place of industrial education in the school system of the
American republics? Should it be supported by public taxation?
Should it be considered as a function of the public school
system? Should it be given in a separate system under separate
control? How and to what extent may industrial schools
cooperate with employers of labor, Commercial Education: How
can a nation prepare in the most effective manner its young men
for a business career that is to be pursued at home or in a
foreign country.

The other estimate of the amount of talent in existence has

been made by one of our most eminent American sociologists, the
late Lester F
The other estimate of the amount of talent in existence has
been made by one of our most eminent American sociologists, the
late Lester F. Ward. The elaborate treatment of this matter is
found in his 'Applied Sociology,' and offers an illustration of
a most rigorous and thorough application of the scientific
method to the subject in question. The essential facts for the
study were furnished by Odin in his work on the genesis of the
literary men of France, although Candole, Jacoby and others are
laid under contribution for data. Maps, tables and diagrams are
used whenever they can be made to secure results. Odin"s study
covered the period of over five hundred years of France and
French regions, or from 1300 to 1825. Out of over thirteen
thousand literary names he chose some 6,200 as representing men
of genius, talent or merit, the former constituting much the
smaller and the latter much the larger of the total number.

Appendix No

Appendix No. II. is a discussion of SELF-LOVE. The author adverts first
to the position that benevolence is a mere pretence, a cheat, a gloss
of self-love, and dismisses it with a burst of indignation. He next
considers the less offensive view, that all benevolence and generosity
are resolvable in the last resort into self-love. He does not attribute
to the holders of this opinion any laxity in their own practice of
virtue, as compared with other men. Epicurus and his followers were no
strangers to probity; Atticus and Horace were men of generous
dispositions; Hobbes and Locke were irreproachable in their lives.
These men all allowed that friendship exists without hypocrisy; but
considered that, by a sort of mental chemistry, it might be made out
self-love, twisted and moulded by a particular turn of the imagination.
But, says Hume, as some men have not the turn of imagination, and
others have, this alone is quite enough to make the widest difference
of human characters, and to stamp one man as virtuous and humane, and
another vicious and meanly interested. The analysis in no way sets
aside the reality of moral distinctions. The question is, therefore,
purely speculative.

The present practical prohibition of the experiment is the poverty of

our colleges
The present practical prohibition of the experiment is the poverty of
our colleges. Identical co-education can be easily tried with the
existing organization of collegiate instruction. This has been tried,
and is still going on in separate and double-sexed schools of all
sorts, and has failed. Special and appropriate co-education requires
in many ways, not in all, re-arrangement of the organization of
instruction; and this will cost money and a good deal of it. Harvard
College, for example, rich as it is supposed to be, whose banner, to
use Mr. Higginson"s illustration, is the red flag that the bulls of
female reform are just now pitching into,--Harvard College could not
undertake the task of special and appropriate co-education, in such a
way as to give the two sexes a fair chance, which means the _best_
chance, and the only chance it ought to give or will ever give,
without an endowment, additional to its present resources, of from one
to two millions of dollars; and it probably would require the larger
rather than the smaller sum. And this I say advisedly. By which I
mean, not with the advice and consent of the president and fellows of
the college, but as an opinion founded on nearly twenty years"
personal acquaintance, as an instructor in one of the departments of
the university, with the organization of instruction in it, and upon
the demands which physiology teaches the special and appropriate
education of girls would make upon it. To make boys half-girls, and
girls half-boys, can never be the legitimate function of any college.
But such a result, the natural child of identical co-education, is
sure to follow the training of a college that has not the pecuniary
means to prevent it. This obstacle is of course a removable one. It
is only necessary for those who wish to get it out of the way to put
their hands in their pockets, and produce a couple of millions. The
offer of such a sum, conditioned upon the liberal education of women,
might influence even a body as soulless as the corporation of Harvard
College is sometimes represented to be.

Here we are behind the scenes at a great discovery; 'as I

ventured to predict'; prediction is part of scientific
theorizing; there is a place for legitimate prediction as there
is for experimentation
Here we are behind the scenes at a great discovery; 'as I
ventured to predict'; prediction is part of scientific
theorizing; there is a place for legitimate prediction as there
is for experimentation. All discoverers have made predictions;
Harvey predicted the existence of the capillaries, Halley
predicted the return of his comet, Adams predicted the place of
the planet Neptune, the missing link in the evolutionary series
of the fossil horses had been predicted long before it was
actually found by Professor Marsh. Pasteur predicted that the
sheep inoculated with the weak anthrax virus would be alive in
the anthrax-infected field, while those not so protected would
all be dead. A prediction verified is a conclusion
corroborated, an investigator encouraged.

Now, as morality would never have existed but for the necessity of

protecting one human being against another, the power of the mind that
adopts other people"s interests and views must always be of vital
moment as a spring of moral conduct; and Adam Smith has done great
service in developing the workings of the sympathetic impulse
Now, as morality would never have existed but for the necessity of
protecting one human being against another, the power of the mind that
adopts other people"s interests and views must always be of vital
moment as a spring of moral conduct; and Adam Smith has done great
service in developing the workings of the sympathetic impulse.

THE construction of the Panama Canal was made possible because

it was shown that yellow fever, like malaria, could be spread
only by the bites of infected mosquitoes
THE construction of the Panama Canal was made possible because
it was shown that yellow fever, like malaria, could be spread
only by the bites of infected mosquitoes.

The third point, the only question of real interest or difficulty, is

resumed at greater length
The third point, the only question of real interest or difficulty, is
resumed at greater length. The distinction between _knowledge_ and
_opinion_ (the higher and the lower kinds of knowledge) does not settle
the question, for opinion may be as _strong_ as knowledge. The real
point is, what is meant by _having knowledge_? A man"s knowledge may be
in abeyance, as it is when he is asleep or intoxicated. Thus, we may
have in the mind two knowledges (like two separate syllogisms), one
leading to continence, the other to incontinence; the first is not
drawn out, like the syllogism wanting a minor; hence it may be said to
be not present to the mind; so that, in a certain sense, Sokrates was
right in denying that actual and present knowledge could be overborne.
Vice is a form of oblivion (III.).

The origin of adaptive variations gave him, at that time,

little concern
The origin of adaptive variations gave him, at that time,
little concern. Though keenly appreciative of the problem of
variation which his studies in evolution presented, he
dismissed it in the 'Origin' with less than twenty-five pages
of discussion. Such brevity is not surprising, since a more
extended treatment would only have embarrassed the progress of
the argument. In fact, his restraint in this direction enabled
him, first, to avoid the difficulties into which Lamarck, with
his bold attack on the problem of variation, had fallen; and
second, by doing so, to deal the doctrine of Design a blow from
which it has never recovered.

These circumstances, explaining the want of conformity in our moral

sentiments to the real tendencies of actions, he next employs to
account for discrepancies in moral sentiment between different
communities
These circumstances, explaining the want of conformity in our moral
sentiments to the real tendencies of actions, he next employs to
account for discrepancies in moral sentiment between different
communities. Having given examples of such discrepancies, he supposes
the case of two families, endowed with the rudimentary qualities
mentioned at the beginning, but placed in different circumstances.
Under the influence of dissimilar physical conditions, and owing to the
dissimilar personal idiosyncracies of the families, and especially of
their chiefs, there will be left few points of complete analogy between
them in the first generation, and in course of time they will become
two races exceedingly unlike in moral sentiment, as in other respects.
He warns strongly against making moral generalizations except under
analogous circumstances of knowledge and civilization. Most men have
the rudimentary feelings, but there is no end to the variety of their
intensity and direction. As a highest instance of discrepant moral
sentiment, he cites the fact that, in our own country, a moral stigma
is still attached to intellectual error by many people, and even by men
of cultivation.

It is my fortune to be able to read a letter from Professor Horsford,

which furnishes a satisfactory view of the ability of the Scientific
School at Cambridge
It is my fortune to be able to read a letter from Professor Horsford,
which furnishes a satisfactory view of the ability of the Scientific
School at Cambridge.

He then proceeds to the theory of PUNISHMENT (XIII

He then proceeds to the theory of PUNISHMENT (XIII., XIV., XV.), to the
classification of OFFENCES (XVI.), and to the Limits of the Penal
Branch of Jurisprudence (XVII.). The two first subjects--Punishments
and Offences--are interesting chiefly in regard to Legislation. They
have also a bearing on Morals; inasmuch as society, in its private
administration of punishments, ought, no less than the Legislator, to
be guided by sound scientific principles.

He next distinguishes Secondary passions from the great primary

tendencies and passions
He next distinguishes Secondary passions from the great primary
tendencies and passions. These arise _apropos_ of external objects, as
they are found to further or oppose the satisfaction of the fundamental
tendencies. Such objects are then called _useful_ or _pernicious_.
Finally, he completes his account of the infantile or primitive
condition of man, by remarking that some of our natural tendencies,
like Sympathy, are entirely disinterested in seeking the good of
others. The main feature of the whole primitive state is the exclusive
domination of passion. The will already exists, but there is no
liberty; the present passion triumphs over the future, the stronger
over the weaker.

It is complete error to suppose that because a thing is vulgar

therefore it is not refined; that is, subtle and hard to define
It is complete error to suppose that because a thing is vulgar
therefore it is not refined; that is, subtle and hard to define.
A drawing-room song of my youth which began 'In the gloaming,
O, my darling,' was vulgar enough as a song; but the connection
between human passion and the twilight is none the less an exquisite
and even inscrutable thing. Or to take another obvious instance:
the jokes about a mother-in-law are scarcely delicate,
but the problem of a mother-in-law is extremely delicate.
A mother-in-law is subtle because she is a thing like the twilight.
She is a mystical blend of two inconsistent things--
law and a mother. The caricatures misrepresent her;
but they arise out of a real human enigma. 'Comic Cuts'
deals with the difficulty wrongly, but it would need
George Meredith at his best to deal with the difficulty rightly.
The nearest statement of the problem perhaps is this:
it is not that a mother-in-law must be nasty, but that she must
be very nice.

We should also decide what interests we should cultivate for our own

personal development and happiness, and for the service we are to render
in a sphere outside our immediate vocation
We should also decide what interests we should cultivate for our own
personal development and happiness, and for the service we are to render
in a sphere outside our immediate vocation. We should consider
avocations as well as vocations. Whatever interests are selected should
be carried to efficiency. Better a reasonable number of carefully
selected interests well developed and resulting in efficiency than a
multitude of interests which lead us into so many fields that we can at
best get but a smattering of each, and that by neglecting the things
which should mean the most to us. Our interests should lead us to live
what Wagner calls a 'simple life,' but not a narrow one.

Consider this question first from the point of view of the agent

Consider this question first from the point of view of the agent. Does
the mother, in watching her sick infant, think of the good of mankind
at that moment? Is the pity called forth by misery a sentiment of the
general good? Look at it again from the point of view of the spectator.
Is his admiration of a steam-engine, and of an heroic human action, the
same sentiment? Why do we not worship the earth, the source of all our
utilities? The ancient worshippers of nature always gave it a soul in
the first instance.

It is the duty of the teacher to make the school attractive; and what

the teacher should do for the school the wife should do for the home
It is the duty of the teacher to make the school attractive; and what
the teacher should do for the school the wife should do for the home.
The home should be preferred by the husband and children to all other
places. Much depends upon themselves; they have no right to claim all of
the wife and mother. But, without her aid, they can do but little. With
her aid, every desirable result may be accomplished. That this result
may be secured, female education must be generous, critical, and pure,
in everything that relates to manners, habits, and morals. Much may be
added to these, but nothing can serve in their stead. We should add, no
doubt, thorough elementary training in reading, writing, and spelling,
both for her own good and for the service of her children. Intellectual
training is defective where these elements are neglected, and their
importance to the sexes may be equal. We should not omit music and the
culture of the voice. The tones of the voice indicate the tone of the
mind; but the temper itself may finally yield to a graceful and gentle
form of expression. It is not probable that we shall ever give due
attention to the cultivation of the human voice for speaking, reading,
and singing. This is an invaluable accomplishment in man. Many of us
have listened to New England"s most distinguished living orator, and
felt that well-known lines from the English poets derived new power, if
not actual inspiration, from the classic tones in which the words were
uttered.

The natural inference from these figures, viewed in the light

of the history of smallpox in Great Britain, is that compulsory
vaccination has been steadily eradicating the disease; but this
is not Mr
The natural inference from these figures, viewed in the light
of the history of smallpox in Great Britain, is that compulsory
vaccination has been steadily eradicating the disease; but this
is not Mr. Coleridge"s conclusion: He says it is due to the
large number of persons who have refused to be vaccinated! This
would be laughable if it were not really serious; it is sad and
serious that a man of Mr. Coleridge"s education and social
position should so consistently mislead the uncritical readers
of the Contemporary Review to whose pages he has unfortunately
very free access. If Mr. Coleridge really believes these things
he is either very stupid or very ignorant; if he knows them to
be otherwise, but wilfully deceives the public, he is immoral.
He suffers from the worst form of bias, the anti-scientific.
{the end of long footnote}

The suggestive presence of such women on the streets is perhaps one of

the most demoralizing influences to be found in a large city, and such
vigorous efforts as were recently made by a former chief of police in
Chicago when he successfully cleared the streets of their presence,
demonstrates that legal suppression is possible
The suggestive presence of such women on the streets is perhaps one of
the most demoralizing influences to be found in a large city, and such
vigorous efforts as were recently made by a former chief of police in
Chicago when he successfully cleared the streets of their presence,
demonstrates that legal suppression is possible. At least this obvious
temptation to young men and boys who are idly walking the streets might
be avoided, for in an old formula one such woman 'has cast down many
wounded; yea, many strong men have been slain by her.' Were the streets
kept clear, many young girls would be spared familiar knowledge that
such a method of earning money is open to them. I have personally known
several instances in which young girls have begun street solicitation
through sheer imitation. A young Polish woman found herself in dire
straits after the death of her mother. Her only friends in America had
moved to New York, she was in debt for her mother"s funeral, and as it
was the slack season of the miserable sweat-shop sewing she had been
doing, she was unable to find work. One evening when she was quite
desperate with hunger, she stopped several men upon the street, as she
had seen other girls do, and in her broken English asked them for
something to eat. Only after a young man had given her a good meal at a
restaurant did she realize the price she was expected to pay and the
horrible things which the other girls were doing. Even in her shocked
revolt she could not understand, of course, that she herself epitomized
that hideous choice between starvation and vice which is perhaps the
crowning disgrace of civilization.

Others, like Jefferson and Channing, never lose confidence in their

species, and their species never lose confidence in them
Others, like Jefferson and Channing, never lose confidence in their
species, and their species never lose confidence in them. When the
teacher comes to believe that the world is worse than it was, and never
can be better, he need wait for no other evidence that his days of
usefulness are over.

ASSOCIATION BY SIMILARITY AND CONTRAST

ASSOCIATION BY SIMILARITY AND CONTRAST.--All are familiar with the fact
that like tends to suggest like. One friend reminds us of another friend
when he manifests similar traits of character, shows the same tricks of
manner, or has the same peculiarities of speech or gesture. The telling
of a ghost or burglar story in a company will at once suggest a similar
story to every person of the group, and before we know it the
conversation has settled down to ghosts or burglars. One boastful boy is
enough to start the gang to recounting their real or imaginary exploits.
Good and beautiful thoughts tend to call up other good and beautiful
thoughts, while evil thoughts are likely to produce after their own
kind; like produces like.

(3) In new cases, and in cases where no sentiment or passion is called

into play, Utility alone is appealed to
(3) In new cases, and in cases where no sentiment or passion is called
into play, Utility alone is appealed to. In any fresh enactment, at
the present day, the good of the community is the only justification
that would be listened to. If it were proposed to forbid absolutely
the eating of pork in Christian countries, some great public evils
would have to be assigned as the motive. Were the fatalities attending
the eating of pork, on account of _trichiniae_, to become numerous,
and unpreventible, there would then be a reason, such as a modern
civilized community would consider sufficient, for making the rearing
of swine a crime and an immorality. But no mere sentimental or
capricious dislike to the pig, on the part of any number of persons,
could now procure an enactment for disusing that animal.

It is not possible here to give all the evidence, but the following

items will serve to clarify these questions
It is not possible here to give all the evidence, but the following
items will serve to clarify these questions.

7

7. The first waves from a very distant earthquake come to us
directly through the Earth. The observed speeds of transmission
are the greater, in general, the more nearly the earthquake
origin is exactly on the opposite side of the Earth from the
observer; that is, the speeds of transmission are greater the
nearer the center of the Earth the waves pass. Now, we know
that the speeds are functions of the rigidity and density of
the materials traversed. The observed speeds require for their
explanation, so far as we can now see, that the rigidity of the
Earth"s central volume be much greater than that of steel, and
the rigidity of the Earth"s outer strata considerably less than
that of steel. Wiechert has shown that a core of radius 4,900
km. whose rigidity is somewhat greater than that of steel and
whose average density is 8.3, overlaid by an outer stony shell
of thickness 1,500 km. and average density 3.2, would satisfy
the observed facts as to the average density of the Earth, as
to the speeds of earthquake waves, as to the flattening of the
Earth,--assuming the concentric strata to be homogeneous in
themselves,--and as to the relative strengths of gravity at the
Poles and at the Equator. The dividing line, 1,500 km. below
the surface--1,600 km. would be just one fourth of the way from
the surface to the center--places a little over half the volume
in the outer shell and a little less than half in the core.
Wiechert did not mean that there must be a sudden change of
density at the depth of 1,500 km., with uniform density 8.3
below that surface and uniform density 3.2 above that surface.
The change of density is probably fairly continuous. It was
necessary in such a preliminary investigation to simplify the
assumptions. The observational data are not yet sufficiently
accurate to let us say what the law of increase in density and
rigidity is as we pass from the surface to the center.

Such a thinker is at the mercy of circumstances, following blindly the

leadings of trains of thought which are his master instead of his
servant, and which lead him anywhere or nowhere without let or hindrance
from him
Such a thinker is at the mercy of circumstances, following blindly the
leadings of trains of thought which are his master instead of his
servant, and which lead him anywhere or nowhere without let or hindrance
from him. His consciousness moves rapidly enough and with enough force,
but it is like a ship without a helm. Starting for the intellectual port
_A_ by way of _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, he is mentally shipwrecked at last on
the rocks _x_, _y_, _z_, and never reaches harbor. Fortunate is he who
can shut out intruding thoughts and think in a straight line. Even with
mediocre ability he may accomplish more by his thinking than the
brilliant thinker who is constantly having his mental train wrecked by
stray thoughts which slip in on his right of way.

In the light of the history of prostitution in relation to militarism,

nothing could be more absurd than the familiar statement that virtuous
women could not safely walk the streets unless opportunity for secret
vice were offered to the men of the city
In the light of the history of prostitution in relation to militarism,
nothing could be more absurd than the familiar statement that virtuous
women could not safely walk the streets unless opportunity for secret
vice were offered to the men of the city. It is precisely the men who
have not submitted to self-control who are dangerous and they only, as
the court records themselves make clear.

Let us quote the authority of such an acute and sagacious observer as

Dr
Let us quote the authority of such an acute and sagacious observer as
Dr. Maudsley, in support of the physiological and pathological views
that have been here presented. Referring to the physiological
condition and phenomena of the first critical epoch, he says, 'In the
great mental revolution caused by the development of the sexual system
at puberty, we have the most striking example of the intimate and
essential sympathy between the brain, as a mental organ, and other
organs of the body. The change of character at this period is not by
any means _limited to the appearance of the sexual feelings_, and
their sympathetic ideas, but, when traced to its ultimate reach, will
be found to extend to the highest feelings of mankind, social, moral,
and even religious.'[21] He points out the fact that it is very easy
by improper training and forced work, during this susceptible period,
to turn a physiological into a pathological state. 'The great mental
revolution which occurs at puberty may go beyond its physiological
limits in some instances, and become pathological.' 'The time of this
mental revolution is at best a trying period for youth.' 'The monthly
activity of the ovaries, which marks the advent of puberty in women,
has a notable effect upon the mind and body; wherefore it may become
an important cause of mental and physical derangement.'[22] With
regard to the physiological effects of arrested development of the
reproductive apparatus in women, Dr. Maudsley uses the following plain
and emphatic language: 'The forms and habits of mutilated men approach
those of women; and women, whose ovaries and uterus remain for some
cause in a state of complete inaction, approach the forms and habits
of men. It is said, too, that, in hermaphrodites, the mental
character, like the physical, participates equally in that of both
sexes. While woman preserves her sex, she will necessarily be feebler
than man, and, having her special bodily and mental characters, will
have, to a certain extent, her own sphere of activity; where she has
become thoroughly masculine in nature, or hermaphrodite in
mind,--when, in fact, she has pretty well divested herself of her
sex,--then she may take his ground, and do his work; but she will have
lost her feminine attractions, and probably also her chief feminine
functions.'[23] It has been reserved for our age and country, by its
methods of female education, to demonstrate that it is possible in
some cases to divest a woman of her chief feminine functions; in
others, to produce grave and even fatal disease of the brain and
nervous system; in others, to engender torturing derangements and
imperfections of the reproductive apparatus that imbitter a lifetime.
Such, we know, is not the object of a liberal female education. Such
is not the consummation which the progress of the age demands.
Fortunately, it is only necessary to point out and prove the existence
of such erroneous methods and evil results to have them avoided. That
they can be avoided, and that woman can have a liberal education that
shall develop all her powers, without mutilation or disease, up to the
loftiest ideal of womanhood, is alike the teaching of physiology and
the hope of the race.

4

4. In the same way mix the two complementaries yellow and blue to
produce a gray; mix red and green in the same way. Try various
combinations of the four fundamental colors, and discover how different
colors are produced. Seek for these same colors in nature--sky, leaves,
flowers, etc.

Thus, he finds three principal causes of quarrel in the nature of

man--_competition, diffidence_ (distrust), and _glory_, making men
invade for gain, for safety, and for reputation
Thus, he finds three principal causes of quarrel in the nature of
man--_competition, diffidence_ (distrust), and _glory_, making men
invade for gain, for safety, and for reputation. Men will accordingly,
in the absence of any power to keep them in awe, be in a constant state
of war; by which is meant, not actual fighting, but the known
disposition thereto, and no assurance to the contrary.

After a chapter of General Remarks, he proposes (Chapter II

After a chapter of General Remarks, he proposes (Chapter II.) to
enquire, What Utilitarianism is? This creed holds that actions are
right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they
tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended
pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the
privation of pleasure. The things included under pleasure and pain may
require farther explanation; but this does not affect the general
theory. To the accusation that pleasure is a mean and grovelling object
of pursuit, the answer is, that human beings are capable of pleasures
that are not grovelling. It is compatible with utility to recognize
some _kinds_ of pleasure as more valuable than others. There are
pleasures that, irrespective of amount, are held by all persons that
have experienced them to be preferable to others. Few human beings
would consent to become beasts, or fools, or base, in consideration of
a greater allowance of pleasure. Inseparable from the estimate of
pleasure is a _sense of dignity_, which determines a preference among
enjoyments.

The constriction from rigid or tight corsets, belts (the latter in men

as well as in women), tight neckwear, garters, etc
The constriction from rigid or tight corsets, belts (the latter in men
as well as in women), tight neckwear, garters, etc., interferes with the
normal functions of the organs which they cover. All such constriction
should be carefully avoided. The tight hats generally worn by men check
the circulation in the scalp. Tight shoes with extremely high heels
deform the feet and interfere with their health. The barefoot cure is
not always practicable, but any one can wear broad-toed shoes with a
straight inner edge and do his part to help drive pointed toes out of
fashion. Such a reform should not be so difficult as to rid the women of
China of their particular form of foot-binding. Several anatomical types
of shoes, that is, shoes made to fit the normal foot instead of to force
the foot to fit them, are now available. In all except cold weather, low
shoes are preferable to high shoes. When possible, sandals, now
fortunately coming into fashion, are preferable to shoes, especially in
early childhood (but the adult, whose calf-muscles and foot-structure
are not often adapted to such foot-gear, must be cautious in their use
lest flat-foot result).

If there is a family tendency to overweight, one should begin early to

form habits that will check this tendency
If there is a family tendency to overweight, one should begin early to
form habits that will check this tendency. If considerable overweight is
already present, caution is necessary in bringing about a reduction.
Barring actual disease, this can usually be done without drugs if the
person will be persevering and faithful to a certain regime.

One could see that there had once been considerable

excavations, but the good layers were now deeply covered by
talus, and could only be exposed after much digging
One could see that there had once been considerable
excavations, but the good layers were now deeply covered by
talus, and could only be exposed after much digging. It was
about thirty years since the pits had been worked. Dr.
Bacmeister found for us a strong country youth, Max Deschle,
who dug under our direction all next day in the quarry near the
house. The rock is not so easy to work as that at Florissant,
and it does not split so well into slabs, but we readily found
a number of fossils. Most numerous were the plants; leaves of
cinnamon (Cinnamomurn polymorphum), soapberry (Sapindus
falcifolius), maple (Acer trilobatum), grass (Poacites loevis)
and reeds (Phragmites oeningensis), with twigs of the conifer
Glyptostrobus europoeus. We obtained a single seed of the very
characteristic Podogonium knorrii. Certain molluscs were
abundant; Planorbis declivis, Lymnoea pachygaster, Pisidium
priscum, with occasional fragments of the mussel Anodonta
lavateri. Ostracods, Cypris faba, were also found. The best
find, however, was a well-preserved fish, the lepidocottus
brevis (Agassiz), showing in the region of the stomach its last
meal, of Planorbis declivis. This greatly interested Max, who
during the rest of the day chanted, as he swung the pick,
'Fischlein, Fischlein, komme!'--but no other Fischlein was
apparently within hearing distance. Not a single insect was
obtained, except that on the talus at one of the other quarries
I picked up a poorly preserved beetle, apparently the Nitidula
melanaria of Heer.

Differences in _intensity_ of sensation are familiar to every person who

prefers two lumps of sugar rather than one lump in his coffee; the sweet
is of the same quality in either case, but differs in intensity
Differences in _intensity_ of sensation are familiar to every person who
prefers two lumps of sugar rather than one lump in his coffee; the sweet
is of the same quality in either case, but differs in intensity. In
every field of sensation, the intensity may proceed from the smallest
amount to the greatest amount discernible. In general, the intensity of
the sensation depends on the intensity of the stimulus, though the
condition of the sense-organ as regards fatigue or adaptation to the
stimulus has its effect. It is obvious that a stimulus may be too weak
to produce any sensation; as, for example, a few grains of sugar in a
cup of coffee or a few drops of lemon in a quart of water could not be
detected. It is also true that the intensity of the stimulus may be so
great that an increase in intensity produces no effect on the sensation;
as, for example, the addition of sugar to a solution of saccharine would
not noticeably increase its sweetness. The lowest and highest intensity
points of sensation are called the lower and upper _limen_, or
threshold, respectively.

The primary _officium_ (in a larger sense than our word Duty) of man is

(they said) to keep himself in the state of nature; the second or
derivative _officium_ is to keep to such things as are _according to
nature_, and to avert those that are _contrary to nature_; our
gradually increasing experience enabled us to discriminate the two
The primary _officium_ (in a larger sense than our word Duty) of man is
(they said) to keep himself in the state of nature; the second or
derivative _officium_ is to keep to such things as are _according to
nature_, and to avert those that are _contrary to nature_; our
gradually increasing experience enabled us to discriminate the two. The
youth learns, as he grows up, to value bodily accomplishments, mental
cognitions and judgments, good conduct towards those around him,--as
powerful aids towards keeping up the state of nature. When his
experience is so far enlarged as to make him aware of the order and
harmony of nature and human society, and to impress upon him the
comprehension of this great _ideal_, his emotions as well as his reason
become absorbed by it. He recognizes this as the only true Bonum or
Honestum, to which all other desirable things are referable,--as the
only thing desirable for itself and in its own nature. He drops or
dismisses all those _prima naturae_ that he had begun by desiring. He
no longer considers any of them as worthy of being desired in itself,
or for its own sake.

The problem is many sided and we must consider the motion of

the air vertically as well as horizontally
The problem is many sided and we must consider the motion of
the air vertically as well as horizontally. Air gains and loses
heat chiefly by convection, and any gain or loss by conduction
may be neglected. The plant gains heat by convection, radiation
and perhaps by conduction of an internal rather than surface
character. The ground gains and loses heat chiefly by
radiation. But the whole process is complicated and may not
even be uniform. Frosts generally are preceded by a loss of
heat from the lower air strata, due to convection and a
horizontal translation of the air. Then follows an equally
rapid and great loss of heat by free radiation. There are minor
changes such as the setting free of heat in condensation and
the utilization in evaporation, but these latent heats are of
less importance than the actual transference of the air and
vapor and the removal of the latter as an absorber and retainer
of heat.

The department store has brought together, as has never been done before

in history, a bewildering mass of delicate and beautiful fabrics,
jewelry and household decorations such as women covet, gathered
skilfully from all parts of the world, and in the midst of this bulk of
desirable possessions is placed an untrained girl with careful
instructions as to her conduct for making sales, but with no guidance in
regard to herself
The department store has brought together, as has never been done before
in history, a bewildering mass of delicate and beautiful fabrics,
jewelry and household decorations such as women covet, gathered
skilfully from all parts of the world, and in the midst of this bulk of
desirable possessions is placed an untrained girl with careful
instructions as to her conduct for making sales, but with no guidance in
regard to herself. Such a girl may be bitterly lonely, but she is
expected to smile affably all day long upon a throng of changing
customers. She may be without adequate clothing, although she stands in
an emporium where it is piled about her, literally as high as her head.
She may be faint for want of food but she may not sit down lest she
assume 'an attitude of inertia and indifference,' which is against the
rules. She may have a great desire for pretty things, but she must sell
to other people at least twenty-five times the amount of her own salary,
or she will not be retained. Because she is of the first generation of
girls which has stood alone in the midst of trade, she is clinging and
timid, and yet the only person, man or woman, in this commercial
atmosphere who speaks to her of the care and protection which she
craves, is seeking to betray her. Because she is young and feminine, her
mind secretly dwells upon a future lover, upon a home, adorned with the
most enticing of the household goods about her, upon a child dressed in
the filmy fabrics she tenderly touches, and yet the only man who
approaches her there acting upon the knowledge of this inner life of
hers, does it with the direct intention of playing upon it in order to
despoil her. Is it surprising that the average human nature of these
young girls cannot, in many instances, endure this strain? Of fifteen
thousand women employed in the down-town department stores of Chicago,
the majority are Americans. We all know that the American girl has grown
up in the belief that the world is hers from which to choose, that there
is ordinarily no limit to her ambition or to her definition of success.
She realizes that she is well mannered and well dressed and does not
appear unlike most of her customers. She sees only one aspect of her
countrywomen who come shopping, and she may well believe that the chief
concern of life is fashionable clothing. Her interest and ambition
almost inevitably become thoroughly worldly, and from the very fact that
she is employed down town, she obtains an exaggerated idea of the luxury
of the illicit life all about her, which is barely concealed.

Several fairly well-marked volitional types may be discovered

Several fairly well-marked volitional types may be discovered. It is, of
course, to be understood that these types all grade by insensible
degrees into each other, and that extreme types are the exception rather
than the rule.

The best names for the aggregate Affection, Motive, and Disposition in

this important region of conduct, are _Moral Approbation_ and
_Disapprobation_
The best names for the aggregate Affection, Motive, and Disposition in
this important region of conduct, are _Moral Approbation_ and
_Disapprobation_. The terms Moral Sense, Sense of Right and Wrong, Love
of Virtue and Hatred of Vice, are not equally appropriate. Virtue and
Morality are other synonyms.

How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank!

Here we will sit and let the sounds of music
Creep in our ears; soft stillness and the night
Become the touches of sweet harmony
How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank!
Here we will sit and let the sounds of music
Creep in our ears; soft stillness and the night
Become the touches of sweet harmony.

Not only would the skill and speed demanded by modern industry be

impossible without the aid of habit, but without its help none could
stand the fatigue and strain
Not only would the skill and speed demanded by modern industry be
impossible without the aid of habit, but without its help none could
stand the fatigue and strain. The new workman placed at a high-speed
machine is ready to fall from weariness at the end of his first day. But
little by little he learns to omit the unnecessary movements, the
necessary movements become easier and more automatic through habit, and
he finds the work easier. We may conclude, then, that not only do
consciously directed movements show less skill than the same movements
made automatic by habit, but they also require more effort and produce
greater fatigue.

The problem of the moving air mass, however, is more

complicated than it looks
The problem of the moving air mass, however, is more
complicated than it looks. For with the air is mixed a quantity
of water vapor. In a strict sense they are independent
variables, and the view set forth in most text-books that air
has a certain capacity for water vapor is misleading. We seldom
meet with pure, dry air. A cubic meter of such a gas mixture
would weigh 1,247 grams, at a temperature of 283 degrees A. (50
degrees F.). If chilled ten degrees, that is, to the freezing
point of water, it would weigh 46 grams more. So that by
cooling, air becomes denser and heavier. A cubic meter of a
mixture of air and water vapor at saturation, at the first
temperature above mentioned weighs only 1,242 grams, or five
grams less, and if this were cooled ten degrees the mixture
would weigh three grams less than the same volume of pure dry
air. We see that in each case the mixture of air and water
vapor weighs less than the air by itself. One would think that
by adding water vapor which, while light, still has weight, the
total weight would be the sum of both. It really is so,
notwithstanding the above figures, and the explanation of the
puzzle is that there was an increase in pressure with
expansion, so that the volume of the air and saturated vapor
was greater than one cubic meter. Since then a cubic meter of
air and saturated vapor weighs less than a cubic meter of dry
air at freezing temperature, speaking generally, we may expect
moist air to rise and dry air to fall. Consequently, if in
addition to falling temperature there is also a drying of the
air, we shall have an accelerated settling or falling of cold
dry air to the ground, which of course favors the formation of
frost. The water vapor plays also another role besides that of
varying the weight per unit volume. The heat received by the
ground consists of waves of a certain wavelength; but the heat
re-radiated by the ground consists of waves of longer
wave-length, and these so-called long waves (12 thousandths of
a millimeter) are readily absorbed by water vapor. Thus water
vapor acts like a blanket and holds the heat, preventing loss
of heat by radiation to space. Further on we shall speak of the
high specific heat of both water and water vapor as compared
with air and show the bearing of this in frost fighting; but at
present we may from what precedes formulate the second law of
frost fighting as follows: 'Frost is more likely to occur where
the air is dry than where it is moist.' It is also true that a
dusty atmosphere is less favorable for frost than a dust-free
atmosphere. Thus we may generalize and say that whatever favors
clear, still, dry air favors frost. The theory of successful
frost fighting then is to interfere with or prevent these
processes which as we have seen facilitate cooling close to the
ground. In what way can this best be done?

A brief glance at this table will show how easily one might slowly

starve on very expensive food, and yet how easily the energy food needed
can be secured at a very low cost
A brief glance at this table will show how easily one might slowly
starve on very expensive food, and yet how easily the energy food needed
can be secured at a very low cost.

I will hazard the opinion that the practice of establishing libraries in

towns for the benefit of a portion of the inhabitants only is likely to
prove pernicious in the end
I will hazard the opinion that the practice of establishing libraries in
towns for the benefit of a portion of the inhabitants only is likely to
prove pernicious in the end. To be sure, reading for some is better than
reading for none; but reading for all is better than either. In
Massachusetts there is a general law that permits cities and towns to
raise money for the support of libraries; yet the legislature, in a few
cases, has granted charters to library associations. With due deference,
it may very well be suggested, that, where a spirit exists which leads a
few individuals to ask for a charter, it would be better to turn this
spirit into a public channel, that all might enjoy its benefits. And it
will happen, generally, that the establishment of a public library will
be less expensive to the friends of the movement, and the advantages
will be greater; while there will be an additional satisfaction in the
good conferred upon others.

The "Observations on Man" (1749) is the first systematic effort to

explain the phenomena of mind by the Law of Association
The "Observations on Man" (1749) is the first systematic effort to
explain the phenomena of mind by the Law of Association. It contains
also a philosophical hypothesis, that mental states are produced by the
_vibration_ of infinitesimal particles of the nerves. This analogy,
borrowed from the undulations of the hypothetical substance aether, has
been censured as crude, and has been entirely superseded. But, although
an imperfect analogy, it nevertheless kept constantly before the mind
of Hartley the double aspect of all mental phenomena, thus preventing
erroneous explanations, and often suggesting correct ones. In this
respect, Aristotle and Hobbes are the only persons that can be named as
equally fortunate.

Ordinarily cold air falls to the ground; but not always, for

under certain conditions cold, heavy air may actually rise,
displacing warm, lighter air
Ordinarily cold air falls to the ground; but not always, for
under certain conditions cold, heavy air may actually rise,
displacing warm, lighter air. But such conditions can be
explained and there is no contradiction of the fundamental law
that if acted on only by gravity, cold air, being denser, will
settle to the ground and warm air, being lighter, will rise.
And there must be a certain relation between the height of the
level from which the cold air falls and the level to which the
warm air rises. In other words, we have to apply the laws of
falling bodies since a given mass of air, although invisible,
is matter and as subject to gravity as a cannon ball.

This public sentiment is not as easily built up in a private school;

for, in the nature of things, some pupils will find their way there who
are not true disciples of learning; and such persons are obstacles to
general progress, while they advance but little themselves
This public sentiment is not as easily built up in a private school;
for, in the nature of things, some pupils will find their way there who
are not true disciples of learning; and such persons are obstacles to
general progress, while they advance but little themselves.

I look, then, first and chiefly to an improved home culture, as the

necessary basis of a system of agricultural education
I look, then, first and chiefly to an improved home culture, as the
necessary basis of a system of agricultural education. Christian
education, culture, and life, depend essentially upon the influences of
home; and we feel continually the importance of kindred influences upon
our common school system.

While attention is no doubt partly a natural gift, yet there is probably

no power of the mind more susceptible to training than is attention
While attention is no doubt partly a natural gift, yet there is probably
no power of the mind more susceptible to training than is attention. And
with attention, as with every other power of body and mind, the secret
of its development lies in its use. Stated briefly, the only way to
train attention is by attending. No amount of theorizing or resolving
can take the place of practice in the actual process of attending.

There are two allusions to smallpox in 'Don Juan,' which was

published in 1819, showing to what an extent Jennerian
teachings were in the air
There are two allusions to smallpox in 'Don Juan,' which was
published in 1819, showing to what an extent Jennerian
teachings were in the air. The first is:

Thus feeling, from the faintest and simplest feeling of interest, the

various ranges of pleasures and pain, the sentiments which underlie all
our lives, and so on to the mighty emotions which grip our lives with an
overpowering strength, constitutes a large part of the motive power
which is constantly urging us on to do and dare
Thus feeling, from the faintest and simplest feeling of interest, the
various ranges of pleasures and pain, the sentiments which underlie all
our lives, and so on to the mighty emotions which grip our lives with an
overpowering strength, constitutes a large part of the motive power
which is constantly urging us on to do and dare. Hence it is important
from this standpoint, also, that we should have the right type of
feelings and emotions well developed, and the undesirable ones
eliminated.

On the mental side the case is no different

On the mental side the case is no different. Our thinking is as
characteristic as our physical acts. We may form the habit of thinking
things out logically, or of jumping to conclusions; of thinking
critically and independently, or of taking things unquestioningly on the
authority of others. We may form the habit of carefully reading good,
sensible books, or of skimming sentimental and trashy ones; of choosing
elevating, ennobling companions, or the opposite; of being a good
conversationalist and doing our part in a social group, or of being a
drag on the conversation, and needing to be 'entertained.' We may form
the habit of observing the things about us and enjoying the beautiful in
our environment, or of failing to observe or to enjoy. We may form the
habit of obeying the voice of conscience or of weakly yielding to
temptation without a struggle; of taking a reverent attitude of prayer
in our devotions, or of merely saying our prayers.

The whole of duty towards others is not however comprehended in

justice
The whole of duty towards others is not however comprehended in
justice. Conscience complains, if we have only not done injustice to
one in suffering. There is a new class of duties--_consolation,
charity, sacrifice_--to which indeed correspond no rights, and which
therefore are not so obligatory as justice, but which cannot be said
not to be obligatory. From their nature, they cannot be reduced to an
exact formula; their beauty lies in liberty. But in charity, he adds,
there is also a danger, from its effacing, to a certain extent, the
moral personality of the object of it. In acting upon others, we risk
interfering with their natural rights; charity is therefore to be
proportioned to the liberty and reason of the person benefited, and is
never to be made the means of usurping power over another.

The sweeping nature of this deduction may from its very

comprehensiveness fail to carry conviction to the reader
The sweeping nature of this deduction may from its very
comprehensiveness fail to carry conviction to the reader. But
concrete illustrations of the value which scientific research
may add to our environment are not far to seek. They are
afforded in abundance by the dramatic achievements of the past
century of human progress, in which science has begun painfully
and haltingly to creep into its true place and achieve its true
function.

Stockard,[32] in his experiments on animals, has demonstrated

conclusively that the germ cells of males can be so injured by allowing
the subjects to inhale the fumes of alcohol that they give rise to
defective offspring, although mated with vigorous untreated females
Stockard,[32] in his experiments on animals, has demonstrated
conclusively that the germ cells of males can be so injured by allowing
the subjects to inhale the fumes of alcohol that they give rise to
defective offspring, although mated with vigorous untreated females. The
offspring of those so treated when reaching maturity are usually nervous
and slightly undersize. These effects are apparently conveyed through
the descendants for at least three generations. Such evidence
establishes at least the probability of the transmission of serious ill
effects to human offspring through alcoholic indulgence of the male
parent.

JAMES"S THREE MAXIMS FOR HABIT-FORMING

JAMES"S THREE MAXIMS FOR HABIT-FORMING.--On the forming of new habits
and the leaving off of old ones, I know of no better statement than that
of James, based on Bain"s chapter on 'Moral Habits.' I quote this
statement at some length: 'In the acquisition of a new habit, or the
leaving off of an old one, we must take care to _launch ourselves with
as strong and decided an initiative as possible_. Accumulate all the
possible circumstances which shall reenforce right motives; put yourself
assiduously in conditions that encourage the new way; make engagements
incompatible with the old; take a public pledge, if the case allows; in
short, develop your resolution with every aid you know. This will give
your new beginning such a momentum that the temptation to break down
will not occur as soon as it otherwise might; and every day during which
a breakdown is postponed adds to the chances of its not occurring at
all.

To these internal growths, from Gratitude, Pity, and Resentment, must

be added the education by means of well-framed penal laws, which are
the lasting declaration of the moral indignation of mankind
To these internal growths, from Gratitude, Pity, and Resentment, must
be added the education by means of well-framed penal laws, which are
the lasting declaration of the moral indignation of mankind. These laws
may be obeyed as mere compulsory duties; but with the generous
sentiments concurring, men may rise above duty to _virtue_, and may
contract that excellence of nature whence acts of beneficence flow of
their own accord.

The principle covers, however, the whole of modern life

The principle covers, however, the whole of modern life.
Morris and the merely aesthetic mediaevalists always indicated
that a crowd in the time of Chaucer would have been brightly
clad and glittering, compared with a crowd in the time of
Queen Victoria. I am not so sure that the real distinction
is here. There would be brown frocks of friars in the first
scene as well as brown bowlers of clerks in the second.
There would be purple plumes of factory girls in the second
scene as well as purple lenten vestments in the first.
There would be white waistcoats against white ermine; gold watch
chains against gold lions. The real difference is this:
that the brown earth-color of the monk"s coat was instinctively
chosen to express labor and humility, whereas the brown color
of the clerk"s hat was not chosen to express anything.
The monk did mean to say that he robed himself in dust.
I am sure the clerk does not mean to say that he crowns
himself with clay. He is not putting dust on his head,
as the only diadem of man. Purple, at once rich and somber,
does suggest a triumph temporarily eclipsed by a tragedy.
But the factory girl does not intend her hat to express a triumph
temporarily eclipsed by a tragedy; far from it. White ermine
was meant to express moral purity; white waistcoats were not.
Gold lions do suggest a flaming magnanimity; gold watch chains do not.
The point is not that we have lost the material hues, but that we
have lost the trick of turning them to the best advantage.
We are not like children who have lost their paint box and
are left alone with a gray lead-pencil. We are like children
who have mixed all the colors in the paint-box together
and lost the paper of instructions. Even then (I do not deny)
one has some fun.

In private life Dr

In private life Dr. Jenner was amiable and kind-hearted. Dibden
said of him: 'I never knew a man of simpler mind or of warmer
heart.' He was particularly kind to the poor. Dr. Matthew
Baillie said of him: 'Jenner might have been immensely rich if
he had not published his discovery.'

The results finally arrived at seem to corroborate the

conclusions of Dr
The results finally arrived at seem to corroborate the
conclusions of Dr. Wood; namely, that in the four leading
American cities, New York, Chicago, Philadelphia and Boston,
'those of the English (and Scotch) ancestry are distinctly in
possession of the leading positions, at least from the
standpoint of being widely known.' Yet it does not seem safe to
disregard entirely those other nationalities which rank so
closely with the English merely because of the small number of
them included in our consideration; for, as has been stated
above, we do not know what proportion of a certain name to
attribute to various nationalities.

And I congratulate you that you accept this anniversary as the occasion

for considering the subject of education
And I congratulate you that you accept this anniversary as the occasion
for considering the subject of education. Ignorant and blind worshippers
of Liberty can do but little for its support; but, whatever of change or
decay may come to our institutions, Liberty itself can never die in the
presence of a people universally and thoroughly educated. It is not,
then, inappropriate nor unphilosophical for us to connect Education and
Liberty together; and I therefore propose, after presenting some
thoughts upon the Declaration of Independence, and its relations to the
American Union, to consider the value of political learning, its
neglect, and the means by which it may be promoted.

I

I.--Specially excluding any such External _Standard_ of moral Good as
the arbitrary Will, either of God or the Sovereign, he views it as a
simple ultimate natural quality of actions or dispositions, as included
among the verities of things, by the side of which the phenomena of
Sense are unreal.

The abused extension of the term Reason to the moral faculties, he

ascribes to the obvious importance of Reason in choosing the means of
action, as well as in balancing the ends, during which operation the
feelings are suspended, delayed, and poised in a way favourable to our
lasting interests
The abused extension of the term Reason to the moral faculties, he
ascribes to the obvious importance of Reason in choosing the means of
action, as well as in balancing the ends, during which operation the
feelings are suspended, delayed, and poised in a way favourable to our
lasting interests. Hence the antithesis of Reason and Passion.

PERSONAL MORALS

PERSONAL MORALS.--The principles of private conduct--physical,
intellectual, moral, and religious--that follow from the conditions to
complete individual life; or, what is the same thing, those modes of
private action which must result from the eventual equilibration of
internal desires and external needs.

In Chapter XXIII

In Chapter XXIII., the author makes the application of his principles
to Ethics. The actions emanating from ourselves, combined with those
emanating from our fellow-creatures, exceed all other Causes of our
Pleasures and Pains. Consequently such actions are objects of intense
affections or regards.

But there is a further fact; forgotten also because we

moderns forget that there is a female point of view
But there is a further fact; forgotten also because we
moderns forget that there is a female point of view.
The woman"s wisdom stands partly, not only for a wholesome
hesitation about punishment, but even for a wholesome hesitation
about absolute rules. There was something feminine and
perversely true in that phrase of Wilde"s, that people should
not be treated as the rule, but all of them as exceptions.
Made by a man the remark was a little effeminate; for Wilde did
lack the masculine power of dogma and of democratic cooperation.
But if a woman had said it it would have been simply true;
a woman does treat each person as a peculiar person.
In other words, she stands for Anarchy; a very ancient
and arguable philosophy; not anarchy in the sense of having
no customs in one"s life (which is inconceivable), but
anarchy in the sense of having no rules for one"s mind.
To her, almost certainly, are due all those working traditions
that cannot be found in books, especially those of education;
it was she who first gave a child a stuffed stocking for
being good or stood him in the corner for being naughty.
This unclassified knowledge is sometimes called rule of thumb
and sometimes motherwit. The last phrase suggests the whole truth,
for none ever called it fatherwit.

We think fast, live fast, learn fast, and, as the fashion of the world

requires a knowledge of many things, we crowd the entire education of
our children into the short period of school-life
We think fast, live fast, learn fast, and, as the fashion of the world
requires a knowledge of many things, we crowd the entire education of
our children into the short period of school-life. Here, and just here,
public sentiment ought to relieve the teacher by reforming itself.

The exercise of the will is of first importance

The exercise of the will is of first importance. Many young people
to-day are brought up so well protected that they have lost the power to
decide for themselves. Will is exercised every time a decision is made.
One of the advantages of all games is that they require decision by the
players. A game like baseball calls out the exercise of almost every
power. It requires the mind to play, the emotions to enjoy, the will to
decide, the muscles to act, and all in mutual coordination.

Austin, in his Lectures on "The Province of Jurisprudence determined,"

has discussed the leading questions of Ethics
Austin, in his Lectures on "The Province of Jurisprudence determined,"
has discussed the leading questions of Ethics. We give an abstract of
the Ethical part.

The cultural factor is one which must be made more omnipresent

than it is now before we shall be able to awake the latent
talent of the masses of people
The cultural factor is one which must be made more omnipresent
than it is now before we shall be able to awake the latent
talent of the masses of people. There are certain sections of
all nations, and more especially of such nations as the United
States, where the population is widely scattered over vast
areas of farming regions in which the opportunities for
education and stimulative enterprises and institutions are
lacking or meager. The same is true of very large sections of
the populations of the cities. In both cases large
neighborhoods exist in which the lives of the people move in a
humdrum rut, never disturbed by matters which arouse the
creative element in human nature. Especially is this important
in the early years of life where the outlook for the whole
future of the individual is so strongly stamped. To come into
contact with no stimulus and arousing agent in the home, or the
neighborhood in the earliest years is to become settled into a
life-long habit of inert dullness.

An aged man of my acquaintance lay on his deathbed

An aged man of my acquaintance lay on his deathbed. In his childhood he
had first learned to speak German; but, moving with his family when he
was eight or nine years of age to an English-speaking community, he had
lost his ability to speak German, and had been unable for a third of a
century to carry on a conversation in his mother tongue. Yet during the
last days of his sickness he lost almost wholly the power to use the
English language, and spoke fluently in German. During all these years
his brain paths had retained the power to reproduce the forgotten words,
even though for so long a time the words could not be recalled. James
quotes a still more striking case of an aged woman who was seized with a
fever and, during her delirious ravings, was heard talking in Latin,
Hebrew and Greek. She herself could neither read nor write, and the
priests said she was possessed of a devil. But a physician unraveled the
mystery. When the girl was nine years of age, a pastor, who was a noted
scholar, had taken her into his home as a servant, and she had remained
there until his death. During this time she had daily heard him read
aloud from his books in these languages. Her brain had indelibly
retained the record made upon it, although for years she could not have
recalled a sentence, if, indeed, she had ever been able to do so.

"I seek to evolve the present state of the universe from the

simplest condition of nature by means of mechanical laws
alone
"I seek to evolve the present state of the universe from the
simplest condition of nature by means of mechanical laws
alone."

Chapter XI

Chapter XI. is on DISPOSITIONS. A man is said to be of a mischievous
disposition, when he is presumed to be apt to engage rather in actions
of an _apparently_ pernicious tendency, than in such as are apparently
beneficial. The author lays down certain Rules for indicating
Disposition. Thus, "The strength of the temptation being given, the
mischievousness of the disposition manifested by the enterprise, is as
the apparent mischievousness of the act," and others to a like effect.

The reading lesson should be taken in through both the eye and the ear,

and then expressed by means of voice and gesture in as full and complete
a way as possible, that it may be associated with motor images
The reading lesson should be taken in through both the eye and the ear,
and then expressed by means of voice and gesture in as full and complete
a way as possible, that it may be associated with motor images. The
geography lesson needs not only to be read, but to be drawn, or molded,
or constructed. The history lesson should be made to appeal to every
possible form of imagery. The arithmetic lesson must be not only
computed, but measured, weighed, and pressed into actual service.

In the first place, teachers, as a class, have a higher idea of their

professional duties, in respect to moral and intellectual culture
In the first place, teachers, as a class, have a higher idea of their
professional duties, in respect to moral and intellectual culture. Many
of them are permanently established in their schools. They are persons
of character in society, with positions to maintain, and they are
controlled by a strong sense of professional responsibility to parents
and to the public. It has been, to some extent, the purpose and result
of Teachers" Associations, Teachers" Institutes, and Normal Schools, to
create in the body of teachers a better opinion concerning their moral
obligations in the work of education. It must also be admitted that the
changes in school government have been favorable to learning and virtue.
For, while it is not assumed that all schools are, or can be, controlled
by moral means only, it is incontrovertible that a government of mild
measures is superior to one of force. This superiority is as apparent in
morals as in scholarly acquisitions. It is rare that a teacher now
boasts of his success over his pupils in physical contests; but such
claims were common a quarter of a century ago. The change that has been
wrought is chiefly moral, and in its influence we find demonstrative
evidence of the moral superiority of the schools of the present over
those of any previous period of this century. Before we can comprehend
the moral work which the schools have done and are doing, we must
perceive and appreciate with some degree of truthfulness the changes
that have occurred in general life within a brief period of time. The
activity of business, by which fathers have been diverted from the
custody and training of their children; the claims of fashion and
society, which have led to some neglect of family government on the
part of mothers; the aggregation of large, populations in cities and
towns, always unfavorable to the physical and moral welfare of children;
the comparative neglect of agriculture, and the consequent loss of moral
strength in the people, are all facts to be considered when we estimate
the power of the public school to resist evil and to promote good. If,
in addition to these unfavorable facts and tendencies, our educational
system is prejudicial to good morals, we may well inquire for the human
agency powerful enough to resist the downward course of New England and
American civilization. To be sure, Christianity remains; but it must, to
some extent, use human institutions as means of good; and the assertion
that the schools are immoral is equivalent to a declaration that our
divine religion is practically excluded from them. This declaration is
not in any just sense true. The duty of daily devotional exercises is
always inculcated upon teachers, and the leading truths and virtues of
Christianity are made, as far as possible, the daily guides of teachers
and pupils. The tenets of particular sects are not taught; but the great
truths of Christianity, which are received by Christians generally, are
accepted and taught by a large majority of committees and teachers. It
is not claimed that the public schools are religious institutions; but
they recognize and inculcate those fundamental truths which are the
basis of individual character, and the best support of social,
religious, and political life. The statement that the public schools are
demoralizing must be true, if true at all, for one of three reasons.
Either because all education is demoralizing; or, secondly, because the
particular education given in the public schools is so; or, thirdly,
because the public-school system is corrupting, and consequently taints
all the streams of knowledge that flow through or emanate from it. For,
if the public system is unobjectionable as a system, and education is
not in itself demoralizing, then, of course, no ground remains for the
charge that I am now considering.

To correct our self-partiality and self-deceit is the use of general

rules
To correct our self-partiality and self-deceit is the use of general
rules. Our repeated observations on the tendency of particular acts,
teach us what is fit to be done generally; and our conviction of the
propriety of the general rules is a powerful motive for applying them
to our own case. It is a mistake to suppose, as some have done, that
rules precede experience; on the contrary, they are formed by finding
from experience that all actions of a certain kind, in certain
circumstances, are approved of. When established, we appeal to them as
standards of judgment in right and wrong, but they are not the original
judgments of mankind, nor the ultimate foundations of moral sentiment.

[Footnote 17: Consistently with this view of happiness, Epicurus

advised, in regard to politics, quiet submission, to established
authority, without active meddling beyond what necessity required
[Footnote 17: Consistently with this view of happiness, Epicurus
advised, in regard to politics, quiet submission, to established
authority, without active meddling beyond what necessity required.]

But this analogy is false, for a plain and particular reason

But this analogy is false, for a plain and particular reason.
Many voteless women regard a vote as unwomanly.
Nobody says that most voteless men regarded a vote as unmanly.
Nobody says that any voteless men regarded it as unmanly.
Not in the stillest hamlet or the most stagnant fen could you
find a yokel or a tramp who thought he lost his sexual dignity
by being part of a political mob. If he did not care about a vote
it was solely because he did not know about a vote; he did not
understand the word any better than Bimetallism. His opposition,
if it existed, was merely negative. His indifference to a vote
was really indifference.

THE CONCEPTS SERVE TO GROUP AND CLASSIFY

THE CONCEPTS SERVE TO GROUP AND CLASSIFY.--But the somewhat complicated
form of classification just described did not come to man ready-made.
Someone had to _see_ the relationship existing among the myriads of
animals of a certain class, and group these together under the general
term _mammals_. Likewise with birds, reptiles, insects, and all the
rest. In order to accomplish this, many individuals of each class had to
be observed, the qualities common to all members of the class
discriminated from those not common, and the common qualities retained
as the measure by which to test the admission of other individuals into
this class. The process of classification is made possible by what the
psychologist calls the _concept_. The concept enables us to think
_birds_ as well as bluebirds, robins, and wrens; it enables us to think
_men_ as well as Tom, Dick, and Harry. In other words, _the concept lies
at the bottom of all thinking which rises above the seeing of the
simplest relations between immediately present objects_.

The most perplexing case that comes before the philanthropic

organizations trying to aid and rescue the victims of the white slave
traffic, is of the type which involves a girl who has been secured by
the trafficker when so lonely, detached and discouraged that she
greedily seized whatever friendship was offered her
The most perplexing case that comes before the philanthropic
organizations trying to aid and rescue the victims of the white slave
traffic, is of the type which involves a girl who has been secured by
the trafficker when so lonely, detached and discouraged that she
greedily seized whatever friendship was offered her. Such a girl has
been so eager for affection that she clings to even the wretched
simulacrum of it, afforded by the man who calls himself her 'protector,'
and she can only be permanently detached from the life to which he holds
her, when she is put under the influence of more genuine affections and
interests. That is doubtless one reason it is always more possible to
help the girl who has become the mother of a child. Although she
unjustly faces a public opinion much more severe than that encountered
by the childless woman who also endeavors to 'reform,' the mother"s
sheer affection and maternal absorption enables her to overcome the
greater difficulties more easily than the other woman, without the new
warmth of motive, overcomes the lesser ones. The Salvation Army in their
rescue homes have long recognized this need for an absorbing interest,
which should involve the Magdalen"s deepest affections and emotions, and
therefore often utilize the rescued girl to save others.

4

4. To test the quickness of association in a class of children, copy the
following words clearly in a vertical column on a chart; have your class
all ready at a given signal; then display the chart before them for
sixty seconds, asking them to write down on paper the exact _opposite_
of as many words as possible in one minute. Be sure that all know just
what they are expected to do.

The First Book of Paley"s "Moral and Political Philosophy" is entitled

"PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS" it is in fact an unmethodical account of
various fundamental points of the subject
The First Book of Paley"s "Moral and Political Philosophy" is entitled
"PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS" it is in fact an unmethodical account of
various fundamental points of the subject. He begins by defining Moral
Philosophy as "_that science which teaches men their duty, and the
reasons of it_. The ordinary rules are defective and may mislead,
unless aided by a scientific investigation. These ordinary rules are
the Law of Honour, the Law of the Land, and the Scriptures.

In Section II

In Section II. the passage is made from the popular moral philosophy
thus arising to the metaphysic of morals. He denies that the notion of
duty that has been taken above from common sage is empirical. It is
proved not to be such from the very assertions of philosophers that men
always act from more or less refined self-love; assertions that are
founded upon the difficulty of proving that acts most apparently
conformed to duty are really such. The fact is, no act _can_ be proved
by experience to be absolutely moral, _i.e._, done solely from regard
to duty, to the exclusion of all inclination; and therefore to concede
that morality and duty are ideas to be had from experience, is the
surest way to get rid of them altogether. Duty, and respect for its
law, are not to be preserved at all, unless Reason is allowed to lay
_absolute_ injunctions on the will, whatever experience says of their
non-execution. How, indeed, is experience to disclose a moral law,
that, in applying to all rational beings as well as men, and to men
only as rational, must originate _a priori_ in pure (practical) Reason?
Instead of yielding the principles of morality, empirical examples of
moral conduct have rather to be judged by these.